Cheese comes in an incredible variety of textures, flavors, and aromas, offering something for everyone. From soft and spreadable to hard and crumbly, mild and creamy to sharp and tangy, the possibilities are endless. This vast variety allows it to be incorporated into countless dishes, snacks, and desserts. Its creamy texture and rich flavor make it a staple ingredient in countless dishes.

Cheesemaking has been practiced for thousands of years and has become deeply ingrained in the cultural fabric of many societies. From France’s iconic cheeses to Mexico’s queso fresco, each region has its own unique traditions and methods for making this dairy product. As cheese production became more industrialized, cheese makers sought ways to improve the texture, consistency, and shelf life of their products. One way to achieve this is to add various ingredients in the dairy product. And one particular ingredient that makes better cheese is sodium citrate.

WHAT IS SODIUM CITRATE?

Sodium citrate, scientifically known as trisodium citrate, is a sodium salt of citric acid. It has a chemical structure consisting of three sodium ions (Na+) bound to a citrate molecule.

The citrate molecule, in turn, comprises three carboxylic acid groups (-COOH) attached to a central carbon atom, along with three hydroxyl groups (-OH).

This molecular arrangement imparts sodium citrate with its characteristic acidic properties and ability to chelate metal ions.

The production of sodium citrate typically involves a chemical reaction between citric acid and sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate. This reaction results in the formation of sodium citrate, along with the release of carbon dioxide gas and water. The reaction equation can be represented as follows:

Citric acid + Sodium carbonate (or Sodium bicarbonate) → Sodium citrate + Carbon dioxide + Water

This reaction is usually conducted in an aqueous solution under controlled conditions of temperature and pH (acidity). This optimizes the yield and purity of the sodium citrate product. After the reaction, the resulting sodium citrate solution may undergo purification steps, such as filtration or crystallization, to remove impurities and obtain the desired product.

Sodium citrate, acknowledged as a safe substance and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), serves multiple functions in the food industry, including as an acidity regulator, emulsifier, and preservative. Its emulsifying attributes render it particularly beneficial in cheese production, where it aids in enhancing texture and stability. According to FDA guidelines, emulsifying agents like phosphates, citrates (such as sodium citrate), and tartrates may be utilized in small quantities (less than 3% of weight) in pasteurized process cheese to achieve desired properties.

Let’s discuss this further.

FUNCTIONS OF SODIUM CITRATE IN CHEESE

Sodium citrate is frequently present in processed cheeses as opposed to natural or artisanal varieties, with processed cheeses being those that undergo modification and blending with other ingredients to enhance their texture, extend shelf life, and improve melting properties. Examples of such cheeses include Velveeta, cheese spreads, and American processed cheese.

Emulsification

Emulsification involves uniformly dispersing fat molecules throughout a water-based medium to create a stable mixture known as an emulsion, achieved with the assistance of emulsifying agents like sodium citrate. In cheese production, fat molecules tend to clump together naturally, resulting in uneven texture or separation of fats and liquids. Sodium citrate intervenes by stabilizing the emulsion, addressing these undesirable outcomes.

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The mechanism behind sodium citrate’s emulsifying property lies in its ability to interact with calcium ions. These ions play a significant role in the coagulation of milk proteins during cheese making. When sodium citrate binds with calcium ions, it disrupts the calcium-mediated interactions between protein molecules, thereby reducing their tendency to coagulate and facilitating the dispersion of fat molecules within the aqueous phase of the cheese. The result of this is even fat distribution throughout the cheese matrix.

Furthermore, sodium citrate’s emulsifying action extends beyond simply preventing fat separation. It also contributes to the creation of a smooth, homogeneous texture in the final cheese product.

Improving meltability

Sodium citrate significantly improves the meltability of cheese through its chelating properties. This positively affects the interactions between calcium ions and casein proteins. In cheese, calcium ions typically bind with the carboxyl groups of casein proteins. This contributes to the formation of a protein network that gives cheese its structure. However, this network can impede the smooth flow of fat molecules during the melting process. Most of the time, this results in an uneven texture and inconsistent melt.

Sodium citrate prevents this from occurring by forming complexes with calcium ions present in cheese. By sequestering these calcium ions, sodium citrate disrupts the interactions between calcium ions and casein proteins. This disruption weakens the protein network, allowing for greater mobility of fat molecules within the cheese matrix.

Improved meltability occurs as a result of this loosening of the protein network. With fewer hindrances, fat molecules can move more freely when subjected to heat, leading to a smoother and more consistent melt. Instead of clumping together or remaining trapped within the protein matrix, the fat molecules flow evenly, resulting in a velvety texture and enhanced mouthfeel.

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Moreover, sodium citrate’s chelating action helps prevent the formation of gritty or grainy textures that can sometimes occur during the melting process.

Many cheese spreads and dips, particularly those available commercially, contain sodium citrate to improve their meltability and texture. Sodium citrate helps these products achieve a smooth, creamy consistency that is ideal for spreading on crackers, dipping with vegetables, or using as a topping.

The post Why Sodium Citrate Makes Good Cheese appeared first on The Food Untold.

Have you ever tried cooking fried rice using freshly cooked rice? How was the texture, though? If it turned out soggy, that’s because of its excess moisture. The next time you cook rice, try to let the rice age a little. Nothing beats leftover rice, especially one-day-old rice, when making fried rice. And here’s why.

Rice primarily consists of starch molecules. Starch is a complex carbohydrate composed of amylose and amylopectin polysaccharide. Amylose represents a linear and relatively unbranched glucose chain in starch, connected by alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds. This contributes to a denser, firmer texture in starchy foods. In contrast, amylopectin forms a highly branched glucose chain with alpha-1,6-glycosidic bonds, resulting in a more porous and granular structure that imparts a sticky, creamy texture to starchy foods.

ONE-DAY-OLD RICE RESISTANT STARCH FRIES BETTER

When the rice is mixed with water and subjected to heat, the starch granules expand as water infiltrates its core. Gradually, the granule absorbs a sufficient amount of water and swells to an extent where it disintegrates into a matrix of starch molecules combined with water.

When the cooked rice is refrigerated, the starch molecules gradually undergo a reformation process called retrogradation. In food chemistry, retrogradation refers to the phenomenon in which starch returns or reverts to a crystalline structure as it cools down. The result of retrogradation is the formation of resistant starch. This is the same reason why bread in the refrigerator hardens over time.

Resistant starch is the type of starch that our body cannot break down. When used in frying, the retrograded crystalline starch can provide a unique texture, resulting in a crisper and a denser finish in certain fried foods.

In one study, the levels of resistant starch in different rice samples, including freshly cooked white rice, rice cooled for 10 hours at room temperature, and rice cooled for 24 hours at 4°C and then reheated. The results indicated that the freshly cooked white rice had the lowest resistant starch content at 0.64 g/100 g. The rice cooled at room temperature for 10 hours showed an increased resistant starch content of 1.30 g/100 g, while the rice cooled at 4°C for 24 hours and reheated had the highest resistant starch content at 1.65 g/100 g.

The results indicate the duration of cooling and reheating can influence the resistant starch content in rice. The longer the rice is in the refrigerator, the more resistant starch is formed. This is the reason why fried rice recipes usually call for leftover (one-day old) rice—its resistant starch makes it fry better than fresh rice.

FRESH COOKED RICE IS THE ONLY OPTION? TRY THESE

If you don’t have any leftover rice available, there are several steps you can take to prevent your fried rice from becoming soggy. The key idea here is to minimize the moisture content in the rice.

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To begin, spread the freshly cooked rice out on a tray or baking sheet. Allow it to cool and air dry for a while. Alternatively, you can speed up this process by briefly storing the rice in the refrigerator. However, it’s important to keep in mind that the longer the rice stays in the refrigerator, the more resistant starch it forms.

Another strategy involves managing the amount of liquid seasonings you add to your dish, such as soy sauce or oyster sauce. Especially when working with fresh rice, it’s wise to be cautious and potentially reduce the quantity of liquid seasonings to avoid introducing excess moisture.

Additionally, when cooking the rice, use a hot pan or wok and continuously stir. This technique not only ensures even cooking, but also promotes the evaporation of any excess moisture. The application of high heat in this process helps rapidly dry out the rice, contributing to the creation of a flavorful fried rice that isn’t soggy.

The post Why One-Day-Old Rice Should Be Used For Fried Rice appeared first on The Food Untold.

Derived from the Khewra Salt Mine in the Himalayan foothills of Pakistan, Himalayan salt primarily comprises sodium chloride, supplemented by trace minerals like magnesium, potassium, and calcium that contribute to its pink hue. This salt deposit’s origins trace back millions of years when an ancient sea covering the area evaporated, leaving substantial salt accumulations. Over time, geological shifts and immense pressure transformed these deposits into the pristine Himalayan salt known today.

Culinary enthusiasts have increasingly embraced Himalayan salt blocks for their distinctive qualities and benefits that elevate cooking. Beyond their captivating visual appeal, these blocks ensure remarkable heat dispersion, reducing cooking durations. Additionally, an intriguing facet of cooking with these blocks is their capacity to prevent excessive saltiness in dishes.

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Let’s discuss these two benefits further.

HEAT DISTRIBUTION AND EFFICIENCY

Himalayan salt blocks, slabs, and plates have gained popularity among both chefs and home cooks, and for good reason. A notable application of Himalayan salt is optimizing heat distribution in cooking and baking.

Himalayan salt blocks exhibit exceptional heat distribution capabilities, setting them apart from conventional cookware. When heated, they effectively and evenly disperse heat across their entire surface, unlike traditional pans with potential hot spots. This even heat distribution ensures uniform cooking of your food.

These salt blocks feature a crystalline lattice structure mainly composed of sodium and chloride ions. As heat is applied, the ions gain energy and transmit it across the lattice, uniformly spreading thermal energy. This arrangement, coupled with the mineral-rich composition, establishes thermal equilibrium across the surface.

Consider searing a steak as an example of the heat distribution’s impact. Placing a thick steak on a preheated salt block allows even heat transfer, ensuring an evenly cooked steak with a seared crust and tender interior. No hot spots mean no worries about uneven cooking. Every bite becomes a perfectly cooked delight.

Using a Himalayan salt block for grilling vegetables guarantees uniform cooking, adding a delightful char while retaining crispness. In baking, the block’s consistent gentle heat ensures even rising and browning of delicate pastries, resulting in a golden, flaky crust.

PREVENTING DISHES FROM BECOMING SALTY

This intriguing benefit is attributed to the unique composition of Himalayan salt and the way it interacts with flavors during the cooking process.

The key factor that sets Himalayan salt apart is its lower sodium content compared to traditional table salt. While both salts contain sodium chloride, Himalayan salt also contains trace minerals. Various studies have found Himalayan salt to contain magnesium (146.78–11937.98 mg/kg), calcium (530.62–5736.73 mg/kg), and potassium (98.39–4528.89 mg/kg). These minerals contribute to a more nuanced and well-rounded flavor profile. When used in cooking, Himalayan salt disperses these minerals along with its sodium content. This results in a milder and less harsh salty taste.

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Additionally, the larger crystal structure of Himalayan salt means that less of it fits in a teaspoon compared to finely ground table salt. This means that when a recipe calls for a specific volume of salt, using Himalayan salt might result in less actual sodium being added to the dish. And yes, the coarser texture of Himalayan salt makes you incorporate less sodium in your dish.

In terms of weight, the sodium content in table salt and Himalayan pink salt remains identical. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a 1/4 teaspoon of standard table salt contains 581 milligrams of sodium, while an equal measure of Himalayan pink salt contains 388 milligrams of sodium. This could be advantageous for individuals looking to manage their sodium consumption, which is often linked to various health concerns, such as high blood pressure.

The post The Benefits Of Using Himalayan Salt In Cooking appeared first on The Food Untold.

Cheese is primarily made from milk, specifically the milk of cows, goats, sheep, or buffalo. The milk is typically coagulated or curdled, which causes it to separate into solid curds and liquid whey. The curds are then processed and transformed into cheese through various methods, depending on the type of cheese being produced.

Now if cheese is primarily made from milk, which is white in color, why is cheese yellow, then?

Well, most cheese, in general, is yellow because of natural pigments called carotenoids.

The main providers of milk for cheese production are cows, and their diet typically consists of grass, hay, or silage. These feed sources contain carotenoids, specifically beta-carotene, which acts as a precursor to vitamin A and contributes to an orange-yellow hue in cheese.

During digestion, cows convert beta-carotene into vitamin A, which then gets stored in their body fat. When milk is produced, the fat globules carry some of these fat-soluble pigments, including the yellow-orange carotenoids, into the milk.

Let’s discuss further.

WHAT ARE CAROTENOIDS?

Carotenoids are a group of naturally occurring pigments found in various plants, algae, and some bacteria. They are responsible for the vibrant red, orange, and yellow colors seen in fruits, vegetables, and other natural substances. Carotenoids play important roles in both photosynthesis and the diet of organisms.

Structurally, carotenoids consist of a series of conjugated double bonds and are classified into two major groups: carotenes and xanthophylls. Carotenes are hydrocarbons, while xanthophylls have oxygen-containing functional groups. Common carotenoids include beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin.

In milk, the most prominent carotenoid in milk is beta-carotene, which is primarily found in the milk fat globules. Beta-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A and is widely present in various fruits, vegetables, and other natural sources.

One of the primary functions of carotenoids in plants is their involvement in photosynthesis. They act as accessory pigments, capturing light energy that chlorophyll alone cannot absorb. By absorbing light across a broader range of wavelengths, carotenoids help optimize the energy-harvesting efficiency of plants.

Carotenoids also serve as antioxidants, protecting plants from the damaging effects of excessive light and reactive oxygen species. They help neutralize free radicals and prevent oxidative stress, which can cause cell damage and contribute to aging and disease.

WHITE MILK TO YELLOW CHEESE

Carotenoids end up in milk through the diet of the animals producing the milk. Carotenoids are naturally present in various plants, particularly in green, leafy vegetables and fruits. This is why grass-based silage contains more carotenoids than hay. When a cow consumes these carotenoid-rich plants, the carotenoids are absorbed into its bloodstream.

Once absorbed, carotenoids are then transported to various tissues and organs, including the mammary glands, where milk production takes place.

During the cheese-making process, the carotenoids become more concentrated and visible. Here’s how.

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When the milk is coagulated using rennet or bacterial cultures, the curds separate from the liquid whey. Within the curds, the fats and proteins encapsulate the carotenoids. These carotenoids are initially dispersed throughout the milk, but as the curds form, they become more concentrated within the solid portion.

The next crucial step is draining the whey from the curds. As the whey is removed, the remaining curds become denser and more concentrated. Consequently, the carotenoids, including beta-carotene, which is a prominent yellow-orange pigment, become more pronounced and visible within the curds.

Additionally, as the curds are processed further, such as through heating, cutting, and pressing, the concentration of carotenoids continues to increase. The manipulation of the curds during these stages aids in expelling excess whey, compacting the curds, and consolidating the cheese. The increased concentration of carotenoids intensifies the yellow color of the cheese. The yellow color is more intense if the milk was obtained from a cow that graze on fresh silage.

WHAT’S WITH WHITE AND ORANGE CHEESES?

While the majority of cheeses are naturally yellow, some are white or orange in color.

Certain orange-colored cheeses are mostly owing to the addition of annatto, a natural food coloring. Annatto is obtained from the seeds of the achiote tree, and is widely used to provide an orange tint to cheese. The amount of annatto used determines the intensity of the orange color. Some cheeses that are orange in color are:

• Red Leicester: Red Leicester is a British cheese that is typically made with cow’s milk. It has a firm texture and a nutty, mellow flavor.
• Colby: Colby cheese is a semi-hard American cheese that is slightly milder than cheddar. It is often used in sandwiches, snacks, and grated over dishes.
• Gloucester: Gloucester cheese is a traditional English cheese that comes in two varieties: Single Gloucester and Double Gloucester. It has a mild, creamy flavor.

Certain cheeses, such as cottage cheese and feta, maintain their white appearance due to their higher acidity levels. These cheeses possess dense protein structures. This denser protein network prevents the absorption or retention of colorants or pigments that might be present in the milk. For this reason, they maintain their original white appearance.

Another reason for the whiteness of certain cheeses is the type of milk used. Cheeses made from the milk of animals like goats and water buffalo, such as goat cheese and buffalo mozzarella, exhibit a white coloration. This is because these animals do not store beta carotene in their fat. Instead, they convert beta carotene into colorless vitamin A. As a result, the cheeses produced from their milk do not acquire a yellow color.

The post Food Science: Why Is Cheese Yellow? appeared first on The Food Untold.

If you’ve ever wondered about the presence of acrylamide in potato chips, you’re not alone. Potato chips, a beloved snack made from thinly sliced potatoes that are fried or baked until crispy, have gained popularity worldwide. However, there are concerns about their impact on health due to their high fat, sodium, and calorie content. Moreover, the cooking process of potato chips at high temperatures has raised questions about the formation of acrylamide, a potential carcinogen. So, let’s delve into the question: Is acrylamide present in all chips?

Let’s find out.

WHAT IS ACRYLAMIDE?

Acrylamide has been a significant industrial chemical, particularly in the production of polyacrylamide. Polyacrylamide has been utilized for a variety of purposes, including the removal of suspended solids from industrial effluent, soil conditioner, herbicide combination surfactant, stationary phase for laboratory separations, and cosmetic formulations.

However, the finding of large levels of acrylamide in heat-processed starch-based foods in April 2002 prompted extensive research into validating the existence and quantifying the amounts of acrylamide. Furthermore, the discovery of acrylamide in foods has sparked global concern because it has been identified as a possible human carcinogen, neurotoxicant, and genotoxicant. It is particularly associated with a higher incidence of breast, ovarian, endometrial, and kidney cancers.

Acrylamide forms as a byproduct of the Maillard reaction. It is a chemical reaction that happens at high temperatures between amino acids (asparagine) and reducing sugars during baking, frying, or roasting. This process causes browning and flavor development in many cooked foods. Acrylamide is not found in unheated or even boiled foods, such as boiled potatoes. It is because the temperature does not rise over 100°C during boiling. It is either undetectable at very low quantities in canned or frozen fruits and vegetables, as well as vegetable protein products.

One of the foods with a reputation for having high acrylamide levels is potato chips. In fact, according to a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) research, potato chips can have up to 1,000 times the level of acrylamide that is deemed safe for drinking water.

Ongoing research is dedicated to understanding the potential health risks associated with dietary exposure to acrylamide. As of now, there is no conclusive evidence linking moderate consumption of foods containing acrylamide to significant health issues. The scientific community continues to explore this subject to provide a clearer understanding of the potential effects on human health.

IS ACRYLAMIDE PRESENT IN ALL CHIPS?

Now, let’s address the burning question: is acrylamide present in all chips? The answer is yes, but the levels can vary. Different factors influence the amount of acrylamide in chips, including the cooking temperature, time, and the composition of the chips.

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Potato chips, being the most popular variety, often contain higher levels of acrylamide compared to other types. This is primarily because potatoes have naturally higher levels of reducing sugars and asparagine amino acid.

In contrast, vegetable chips or tortilla chips typically have reduced acrylamide content compared to potato chips, mainly because of variances in their composition and cooking techniques. According to a study, the acrylamide levels in potato chips ranged from 117 to 2762 parts per billion (ppb), while tortilla chips exhibited acrylamide levels between 130 and 196 ppb.

Food regulatory authorities around the world, such as the FDA and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), have been monitoring acrylamide levels in food products. The below table shows high acrylamide-containing foods.

While the potential health risks of acrylamide have been studied, the evidence regarding the impact of moderate consumption on human health is inconclusive. It’s important to remember that a balanced and varied diet, along with a healthy lifestyle, is key to overall well-being.

MINIMIZING ACRYLAMIDE FORMATION IN CHIPS

If you are concerned about acrylamide levels in chips, you may consider moderating your intake, opting for alternative snack options, or choosing chips that are cooked using methods that minimize acrylamide formation. If you cook the chips yourself, there are several things to do during preparation and cooking that you can follow to minimize acrylamide formation. Here are some of them.

Soaking is a simple and effective method of reducing acrylamide levels in cooked potatoes. Soaking potatoes in water for 15 to 30 minutes is effective in reducing acrylamide levels during the cooking process.

Several factors contribute to the effectiveness of soaking in reducing acrylamide levels. Soaking helps remove some of the starch content from the potato surfaces. When the inherent sugars and amino acids in potatoes interact under high heat, acrylamide is formed. By partially removing the starch through soaking, there are fewer sugars available for this reaction to occur. Additionally, soaking may eliminate some of the water-soluble substances involved in the synthesis of acrylamide, such as asparagine and reducing sugars. By soaking, these substances are partially removed, resulting in lower acrylamide levels when the potatoes are cooked. I have previously discussed this topic in a blog post, which you can read here.

The thickness and cooking method of the chips are influential in determining the acrylamide content. Thinner chips that are cooked at higher temperatures for longer durations may exhibit higher levels of acrylamide. It is important to ensure that the chips are cut thinly and uniformly. Moreover, carefully monitor the frying temperature to maintain control. Cooking the chips at lower temperatures can help minimize the formation of acrylamide while ensuring thorough cooking. It is recommended to cook the chips until they reach a golden brown color and avoid overcooking. Darker chips indicate higher levels of acrylamide formation.

The post Is Acrylamide Present in All Chips? Let’s Find Out appeared first on The Food Untold.

Cotton candy is a popular sugar-based confection. It was invented in the late 19th century and called ‘fairy floss’ by its inventors, American dentist William Morrison and confectioner John C. Wharton. Josef Lascaux, another dentist, coined the term ‘cotton candy’ during the 1920s. National Geographic discusses its history in more detail. Cotton candy is a light and fluffy treat that is a staple at fairs, carnivals, and amusement parks. How cotton candy is made requires some fascinating science.

When you look closely, cotton candy is simply spun sugar, heated to form a liquid sugar mixture. However, the trick lies in how the sugar is heated and spun to generate those light and airy threads. In addition to sugar, food coloring and flavoring can be used to create a variety of colors and flavors, making it appealing to kids and kids at heart.

In a nutshell, cotton candy is made by melting sugar and spinning it through small holes in a cotton candy machine, and allowing it to harden into delicate strands. This method is based on science of sugar crystallization.

In this blog post, we will explore the scientific process behind how cotton candy is made.

HOW IT IS MADE?

The process of making cotton candy begins with heating and melting the sugar. A cotton candy maker or spinner is the machine used to manufacture cotton candy. A heating element in the spinner melts sugar or a sugar-based combination into a liquid form. The spinning drum also helps to distribute the heat evenly, preventing the sugar from burning. If you wish to make cotton candy, a candy temperature should help. In practice, the temperature for cotton candy making is at least 260°F (127°C).

Once the sugar has melted, it is ready to be spun into cotton candy. The spinning drum has minute holes to allow liquid sugar to flow out. The sugar is spun at high rates in the machine, causing it to be drawn into long, thin strands. Then, the strands are gathered to form a larger mass of cotton candy.

This can be collected on a spinning cone, a bowl, or wooden stick, where the strands continue to build up until the desired amount is achieved.

Colors and flavors

Cotton candy’s colors and flavors are created using food coloring and flavorings, which can be combined with the melted sugar before it is introduced into the spinning chamber. Natural and synthetic food colors are available, with synthetic food dyes being the most typically utilized. These dyes are designed to be stable. Hence, they will not degrade or fade over time, allowing the cotton candy to retain its brilliant color.

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Colors can vary depending on the manufacturer and the market they are targeting. In the United States, pink and blue cotton candy is frequently linked with carnivals and fairs. Whereas green and purple cotton candy may be more popular in other countries or areas. Often, food color is based on the flavor profiles of the cotton candy. Blue cotton candy, for example, could be flavored with blue raspberry, while pink cotton candy could be flavored with strawberry.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND COTTON CANDY MAKING

The science of making cotton candy relies on precise temperature and moisture management to achieve the desired texture. It starts by melting sugar, requiring precise heating to transform it from a solid into a liquid state.

To create the thread-like consistency of finished cotton candy, the process of sugar crystallization must be carefully controlled. Several factors influence the formation of sugar crystals, including the temperature of the sugar solution. The temperature must be high enough to melt the sugar, but not so high that it completely breaks down into its component parts, glucose and fructose. Maintaining a dry environment is also crucial during the process to avoid clumping in the finished cotton candy. Even slight moisture can cause the sugar to stick together instead of forming the delicate, thin strands that make cotton candy unique.

As the melted sugar is spun out through the machine’s tiny holes, it is exposed to air, which rapidly cools it down. This rapid cooling prevents large crystals from forming and encourages the creation of small, delicate fibers of sugar, each about 50 microns in diameter.

In addition to sugar crystallization control, the spinning process provides a distinct physical structure in cotton candy strands. Cotton candy’s fluffy texture is created during the spinning process. The spinning motion’s centrifugal force causes the sugar to be stretched and tugged into thin, fragile strands, forming a network of interconnected strands. This structure contributes to cotton candy’s fluffy, cloud-like appearance. Without spinning, the melted sugar would be too dense and heavy to generate the fine, delicate strands.

The post The Sweet Chemistry: How Cotton Candy Is Made appeared first on The Food Untold.

Have you ever observed how cooked shrimps change in color? This change can be both fascinating and delicious. This color change also occurs in other crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters. But why does this alteration occur, and how does it modify the flavor and consistency of your shrimp?

Uncooked shrimp can come in a variety of colors depending on the species, but they are typically transparent with a grayish-green or bluish hue. Shrimp flesh can have a light gray or pinkish-gray appearance. But as the shrimps cook, they turn pink or orange, thanks to a natural pigment called astaxanthin.

Let’s look more closely.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND THE COLOR CHANGE IN COOKED SHRIMPS

Thanks to the Maillard reaction and caramelization, most foods cook to an enticing brown hue. However, the color shift in crustaceans like shrimp is a quite different phenomenon. Shrimps are translucent and light blue when they are fresh. Their color changes to a tasty brilliant orange when they are cooked.

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The reason for this color change is astaxanthin pigment that crustaceans contain.

What is astaxanthin?

The group of pigments known as carotenoids includes the pigment astaxanthin. Salmon and carrots both have an orange color because of the same pigment. The food of crustaceans and other marine species provides this pigment. Crustaceans consume astaxanthin-containing plankton and algae for food. In their skin and shell, astaxanthin accumulates over time. The exact reason why crustaceans store this pigment is unknown. But if they are in shallow waters, it may protect them from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. When alive, crustaceans camouflage their orange-pink hue to avoid being seen by predators. Here’s how the orange color becomes visible.

The chemical reaction between astaxanthin and protein

Shrimps’ astaxanthin molecules are altered by heat during cooking, changing how they reflect light. Astaxanhin molecules in raw shrimp are linked to proteins to create crustacyanin, a carotenoprotein pigment. Crustaceans’ bodies produce carotenoprotein while they are alive. It conceals astaxanthin while controlling and obstructing it. This stops light from reflecting, giving the crustacean its blue hue and translucent appearance. The animal can camouflage itself from predators in this way.

However, the link between the two molecules is disrupted when shrimps are cooked. The proteins in the shrimps lose their structure when they are exposed to high temperatures, which causes the astaxanthin molecules to which they are attached to be released. Now that they are liberated, these pigment molecules reflect light in a way that gives cooked shrimp its bright pink or orange hue. Therefore, color can be used to determine whether shrimp have already been heated.

The amount of color change can be influenced by a variety of elements, such as the type of shrimp used, the cooking method, and denatured proteins. For instance, boiling or steaming shrimp can result in an orange color that is more consistent than grilling or sautéing, which can sometimes generate an irregular color pattern. It should be emphasized, however, that in the case of cooked shrimps, a change in color should not be taken as a sole indicator of doneness. Prior to being fully cooked, the color of larger shellfish, including lobster and crab, will change. The flesh of cooked shrimps should be opaque, solid, and white.

The cooking time and temperature will determine how much protein has been denatured.

Also, the natural color of some species of shrimp is darker than that of other species, which can affect how much the color changes after they are cooked.

COOKING SHRIMPS ACCORDING TO SCIENCE

The color change will be more noticeable at higher cooking temperatures and for longer cooking times. But cooking shrimps is more than just the change in color. The heat also changes the shrimp’s flavor and texture.

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Shrimp’s tougher texture is also a result of the heat-induced denaturation and coagulation of protein. In general, this is beneficial. Overcooking should be avoided, though, since it might result in a rubbery texture and an unappealing flavor. Shrimp’s degree of curling is one indicator of doneness. Once cooked, the shrimp starts to coil up. If you overcook them, they will continue to form small, tight balls, and the texture won’t be as juicy as you prefer. Once more, proteins are involved in this alteration because they reduce their ability to bind water as they age.

The shrimp’s flavor is likewise changed by the color shift, becoming sweeter and savorier. This is because the breakdown of complex carbohydrates produces simpler sugars, which are easier for our taste senses to detect. Compared to mollusks or fish, cooked shrimp has a slightly different aroma profile. The chemicals pyrazine and thiazole are particularly the reason for this.

Cook the shrimp in their shells to bring out the greatest flavor. It has been noted that cooking crustaceans in their shells improves their flavor. This is because a concentrated mass of protein, sugar, and color molecules also makes up the shell. Thus, it may flavor the body’s exterior layer while lessening the leaching of flavorings from the flesh.

To preserve the color and texture of shrimp once it has been cooked, serve it right away. Add a squeeze of lemon or fresh herbs as a garnish for taste and aesthetic appeal.

The post Why Do Shrimps Change Color When Cooked? Explained appeared first on The Food Untold.

Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. In fact, a pound of it can fetch for $1500 to $2500. Its low availability and the tedious work required are one of the reasons for it. But what does saffron taste like? Is it worth the cost?

Saffron is a spice obtained from the plant Crocus sativus. It is grown in limited regions. According to the Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Iran, India, Spain and Greece are the largest producers of saffron. Iran alone contributes to 88% of the world’s supply of saffron. To make it more difficult, each flower of the plant only produces three threads. The red threads are the stigmas of the flower. They are harvested manually and dried to produce the culinary spice. But since the crocus flower only produces a limited number of threads, it takes a considerably large farming area to produce the saffron in commercial quantity. A pound of the spice alone takes 75,000 crocus flowers to produce.

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Saffron is a common spice in many cuisines. But it is particularly a feature in many Middle Eastern and Spanish dishes such as paella and risotto. Just a pinch of thread of saffron is enough for flavor and color. Often, it is prepared by steeping in milk or warm water for 30 minutes to release and flavor and draw out the color.

THE FLAVOR PROFILE OF SAFFRON

Saffron is one of the most common adulterated food items. This is due to its high cost and scarcity . Even today, the spice has a sizable counterfeit market. Pre-ground saffron is more prone to adulteration than whole saffron. Saffron imitation is usually odorless and bitter. And sometimes it tastes like plastic or metallic.

To increase its value, saffron is frequently combined with other spices such as paprika, turmeric, and annatto. But the use of artificial color to simulate the color of real saffron is probably the most concerning aspect of adulterated saffron. This article discusses saffron food fraud further.

American or Mexican saffron is obtained from a daisy flower. It lacks the flavor of true saffron. In many Indian dishes, turmeric is used as a saffron substitute to provide a similar color and flavor to foods. While turmeric is a good and inexpensive substitute for saffron in terms of color, it cannot replace saffron in terms of flavor.

Saffron is sought after for its complex and unique flavor profile. The taste of true saffron can be described as floral and sweet, or earthy and pungent, and some hints of hay, bitterness, and grassy, jasmine, and honey. The threads will turn a cup of water yellow. The resulting water will have a bitter taste, and the water will remain yellow after adding baking soda. With an increase in pH (acidity), many counterfeit saffrons will turn water red or brown. The threads of counterfeit saffrons will also disintegrate if soaked in hot water for about 5 minutes or so.

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To release the flavor of saffron, crush the saffron threads with fingers before adding them to a dish. Use sparingly because too much saffron imparts a metallic taste.

SAFFRON CHEMISTRY

Saffron contains over 150 different compounds that contribute to the aroma and flavor. Some of the volatile compounds form during drying of stigmas. The two most important volatile components are safranal (which accounts for 70% of the volatiles) and betaisophorone. Both of these small organic compounds have a low water solubility, which makes them excellent volatile fragrances.

Safranal dissolves better in water than in oil. But it takes longer to escape and benefit from steeping. Adding directly may leave much trapped in the threads. To hasten the release the flavor, grind the spice in a pestle and mortar before steeping in warm or hot water for 20 minutes (up to 24 hours). To extract the minor compounds, add alcohol to the soaking water. The presence of fat in milk helps dissolve the less flavorful molecules. This process also extracts the color and aids in the creation of a flavor mixture that is homogeneous in the finished dish.

Saffron’s deep red color is due to the presence of the fat-soluble carotenoids crocin and crocetin. The breakdown of a compound called zeaxanthin produces these brightly colored pigments. Picrocrocin is a bitter byproduct of zeaxanthin degradation. Picrocrocin, a glucose derivative and water soluble flavor molecule, is the distinguishing feature of genuine saffron.

It is responsible for the lingering, slightly bitter taste of saffron. Picrococin and safranal are both unique to saffron, but their qualities, along with small amounts of pinene and the tenacious eucalyptus-like compound cineole, help to determine pairings.

These compounds are contained in the stigmas of the crocus flower. But in order to yield these molecules, drying is necessary. The drying process breaks down the cells to release the enzymes that kick starts the reactions that produce the flavor compounds of saffron. The optimal drying temperature for saffron is 104°F (40°). Carotenoid degradation occurs when drying temperatures are lower than 86°F (30°C) or higher than 140°F (60°C).

The post What Does Saffron Taste Like? Science Tells appeared first on The Food Untold.

Vanilla is one of the most popular flavorings in the world. Its extract is used in food, beverages, pharmaceutical, and perfumes. Vanilla flavoring is obtained from the beans of the vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia). Vanilla is particularly popular in beverages, desserts, ice cream, dairy products, pastries, confectionery, and chocolates. In culinary applications, it can be added by adding vanilla extract or vanilla beans to a liquid preparation. Depending on the concentration, natural vanilla gives preparations a yellow or brown color.

Vanilla fruit matures in about 6 months and grows quickly on the vine. Because vanilla fruits ripen at varying rates, daily harvesting is required to ensure that each fruit has the best flavor. Individual pods are hand-picked as the end begins to split. Overripe fruits are more likely to split, lowering their market value.

The length and appearance of the pod determine the commercial value of vanilla beans. If the fruit is longer than 15 cm (5.9 in), it is of high quality. The largest fruits (those measuring 16-21 cm in length) are reserved for the gourmet vanilla market. Fruits between 10 and 15 cm long, pods, and fruits less than 10 cm long are classified as second-quality, and fruits less than 10 cm long are classified as third-quality. Good quality vanilla has a strong aromatic flavor. But foods containing small amounts of low-quality vanilla or artificial vanilla-like flavorings are far more common.

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Until the 19th century, the bulk of vanilla flavor was obtained naturally from vanilla plant. A major change in the vanilla industry occurred in 1874 when German chemists developed a synthetic alternative to natural flavor. Today, it is estimated that 97% vanilla-flavored foods are produced with synthetic vanillin.

Let’s discuss further.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF VANILLA FLAVORING

The origin of vanilla can be traced back to 1,000 years ago when the Totonac people of Mexico’s eastern coast first cultivated vanilla for its fragrance. But the first recorded use of vanilla as a flavoring agent was during the 15th century CE when the Aztecs conquered the Totonac and used vanilla to flavor their drinks made from ground corn, honey, and powdered cocoa beans.

Then in 1519, the Aztec king served vanilla-flavored cacao drink to the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés, who returned to Spain with cacao beans and vanilla pods.

Early to mid-1800s saw the spread of vanilla cultivars due to the plant’s high culinary value, including to Réunion (previously known as Bourbon)., a West Indian island where the vine would grow, but the pod would not develop. Mexico continued to hold a monopoly because only native orchid bees could pollinate the pods and cause them to develop. That is, until 1837 when Charles Morren, a Belgian botanist, solved the riddle and realized the importance of the Melipona bee for pollination.

After his discovery, he devised a method of artificial pollination, but unfortunately this was not feasible commercially. 5 years later, Edmond Albius, a 12-years old slave in the West Indies, discovered and developed a method of hand pollinating the vanilla flower. Even now, this technique is employed, which has allowed vanilla to be grown in various tropical regions of the world. Albius won his freedom for the invention of this process.

Today, the biggest producers of vanilla in the world are Madagascar, Indonesia, and Mexico. In 2021, Madagascar produced 3070 tons, Indonesia produced 1456 tons, and Mexico produced 609 tons of vanilla. Bourbon or Madagascar vanilla is produced on the West Indian island of Réunion

VANILLA CHEMISTRY

Among spices, vanilla is special because it requires a lot more processing to create the culinary form. Fresh vanilla beans have very little to no flavor. The main component of aroma and flavor of vanillla is vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde).

Vanillin is only found in the conjugated form as glucovanillin in the green pods of orchids. Vanilla’s distinctive aroma develops after fermentation. Usually between 2.5% and 3.0% of fermented pods contain vanillin. Along with vanillin, low-quality vanilla species also contain the aromatic aldehyde piperonal.

There are over 250 other compounds that contribute to the flavor of vanilla. These compounds produce floral, spicy, woody, and fruity aromas. Though lesser, they differentiate vanilla pods from the synthetic vanillin flavoring. Aromatic carbonyls, aromatic acids, aromatic esters, aromatic alcohols, phenols and phenol ethers, aliphatic alcohols, acids, carbonyls, lactones and esters, are among the other aroma compounds found in vanilla.

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The global demand and cost for vanillin far outnumber the vanilla plant’s capacity to produce the flavor. This is the reason why synthetic vanillin accounts for the majority of the vanilla flavoring market. Furthermore, it is produced at one hundredth the cost of natural vanillin. After saffron, vanilla is the most expensive spice.

HOW IT IS MADE

The primary aroma/flavor constituent, vanillin, is bound as a glycoside and is enzymatically hydrolyzed to release vanillin. The vegetative cells of the vanilla bean must be disrupted in order to begin the enzymatic hydrolysis of the vanillin glycosides. Killing disrupts the cells and tissue of the fruits, mimicking the enzymatic reactions that sets free the aromatic compounds. There are 4 ways to accomplish this:

1. Immersing the beans in hot water
2. Freezing
3. Scratching
4. Exposing the beans to direct sunlight

The various methods produce different profiles of enzymatic activity, allowing glycosidase enzymes to act on glucovanillin and release free vanillin.

Hot-water killing is achieved by immersing the vanilla beans in hot water for 3 minutes at 145°F (63°C) to 149°F (65°C) for 3 minutes or 176°F (80°C) for 10 seconds. To mimic the enzymatic reaction, the Aztecs exposed the fruits to sunlight until they turned dark brown. Fruits can also be wrapped in blankets and tied into bundles before heating them in an oven at 140°F (60°C) for 36 to 48 hours. Fruits can be frozen and thawed to initiate enzyme and substrate release, but they must be thawed for the sweating stage.

Sweating, drying, and conditioning

Sweating is the process of holding the fruits for 7-10 days at temperatures between 113°F (45°C) to 149°F (65°C) with high humidity. The fruits are brown at the end of the sweating process and have developed the distinctive vanilla flavor and aroma, and a moisture content of 60-70% by weight.

Drying is the most difficult stage to manage because uneven drying can result in vanillin loss. The drying process lowers the beans’ moisture content to between 25% and 30%. This is sufficient to keep them from rotting and maintain the aroma compounds in the pods. The beans are typically dried by being exposed to brief periods of shade and sunlight.

After drying, the pods are conditioned by storing them in closed boxes for 5 to 6 months. This phase sees the development of the scent.

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Some of the glycoside components of the seed and plant cell walls are transformed into vanillin as the bean pods age and brown. An average of 2.5% vanillin can be found in the dried vanilla fruits.

NATURAL VS. SYNTHETIC VANILLA

Natural vanilla extract is a complex mixture that contains vanillin extracted from alcohol soaked vanilla beans or processed beans that have been washed with alcohol multiple times. The aroma and flavor of pure natural vanilla extract are best described as sweet, fruity, and spicy.

Natural vanilla flavoring plant is too costly for industrial use. For this reason, the majority of vanilla flavoring is a synthetic vanillin product with added sugar and other compounds. This is still pure vanilla; it is just not produced naturally by the plant. Vanillin can be synthesized in a variety of ways. The ‘classical’ synthesis of vanillin from isoeugenol or oreugenol was developed in 1896. This was the preferred method for 50 years. Today, Vanillin is now produced in large quantities industrially via the Reimer-Tiemann reaction, which begins with guaiacol and ends with o-vanillin.

The thing is vanilla is a very volatile compound, regardless of whether the vanilla is artificial or pure vanilla extract. To avoid evaporation and loss, it is best added later in the cooking process.

Working with vanilla pod, rather than flavoring or extract, is ideal for obtaining the most complex and interesting vanilla flavor. This is because the majority of the vanilla flavor is found in the sticky material in the pod as well as the small black bean seeds.

To achieve this, scrape out the sticky black material and seeds, and include the scraped seeds and bean in the recipe. This is even better if the dish consists of cream or milk as an ingredient. The compounds that give vanilla its flavor and scent are more soluble in fat and oil than in water. And the fats in milk dissolve the vanilla flavor molecules. This leads to leading to concoctions like vanilla bean ice cream or vanilla milk.

References:

J. Valisek (2014). The Chemistry of Food. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

M. Wallert, K. Colabroy, B. Kelly, J. Provost (2016). The Science of Cooking: Understanding The Biology And Chemistry Behind Food And Cooking. John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

S. Farrimond (2018). The Science of Spice. Dorling Kindersley Limited.

J. deMan, J. Finley, W. Jeffrey Hurst, C. Y. Lee (2018). Principles of Food Chemistry (4th edition). Springer.

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If you examine closely a whole chicken meat, the different parts can be distinguished by their color; there is white and dark meat. White chicken meat includes the wings, back, and breast, whereas the dark chicken meat includes the thigh and drumstick. But what are the differences between them? In this post, we’ll discuss the differences between white and dark chicken meat in terms of composition (color), taste, and nutrition.

DARK CHICKEN MEAT CONTAINS MYOGLOBIN

The levels of myoglobin dictates the color of meat. The levels vary depending on how often the muscle was used during activity when the animal was still alive. This also applies to other meats such as beef, pork, and lamb.

Myoglobin is a red-colored protein that binds or supplies oxygen in animal muscles. Oxygen is necessary for muscle contraction. The more worked the muscle, the more myoglobin and oxygen is supplied. This is the reason why the leg (drumstick) and thigh part in chicken meat become darker in color. Imagine all the power walking and running when the chicken was alive.

The wings and breast of chicken, on the other hand, are white meat because they are less worked. Chickens are birds that only fly short distances, and hence the wings are not worked as much. And the breast muscle only needs short burst of energy to assist in flapping the wings, and thus only need less oxygen and myoglobin.

In general, chicken meat is classified as white meat, which also includes turkey. Chicken meat typically contains only 0.05% of myoglobin, which makes it pinkish-white.

For more details about myoglobin, I have an article for it. Check it out here.

TASTE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHITE AND DARK CHICKEN MEAT

Here is one of the most asked questions regarding white and dark chicken meat. Which one is better, in terms of taste, white or dark chicken meat? Well, neither because it depends on one’s preference. As we have earlier learned, dark chicken meat contains more proteins in the form of myoglobin. In addition to that, dark meat contains more fat because of the multiple muscles present. Furthermore, many flavor compounds found in dark meat are fat-soluble. This makes the leg and thigh part tender, juicy, and flavorful when cooked. If you are someone who prefer stronger chicken flavor, then dark meat suits you better.

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Breast and wing part are known to have a milder taste. Nonetheless, white chicken meat is no pushover though. The best thing about white meat though is that they are very versatile during cooking. Because of their mild taste, they can be added in a wide variety of cuisines and produce different flavors. If you prefer chicken with a subtle taste, or wish to pair it with another ingredient, then you should go for white chicken meat.

In the United States and Europe, white chicken meat, particularly the breast part, is more preferred over dark meat. In fact, the bulk of dark chicken meat in the US is exported to other countries for the same reason. The wing (buffalo wing) and breast part are often prepared fried in these regions.

NUTRITIONAL PROFILE DIFFERENCE

Like the taste and color, there are also several differences between the two in terms of nutrition. But again, it boils down to one’s preference and need.

For most nutritionist and dieticians, white chicken meat is better because it contains less fat and calories. According to My Fitness Pal, a 3 ounce of white meat contains 147 calories and 4 grams of fat, whereas dark meat of the same amount contains 174 calories and 8 grams of fat. And when it comes protein, the difference is not that significant. The same serving of white meat contains 26 grams, while dark meat contains 23 grams. So if you are someone who wants to cut down on calorie and fat intake, then white chicken is a better option.

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Dark meat, on the hand, is better for individuals who are looking for essential vitamins and minerals. The leg and thigh part, as I mentioned earlier, require more myoglobin for physical activity. But myoglobin is more than just color. This protein also carries nutrients, particularly iron, a mineral that our body needs to produce hemoglobin. Dark meat contains 7.0 ppm of iron. This is twice as many as that in white meat, which contains 3.0 ppm of iron. Aside from iron, dark meat is also a good source of heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids, since it contains more fat than white meat. It also contains more zinc, riboflavin (vitamin B2), thiamine (vitamin B1), and selenium.

Keep your dietary requirements in mind if you are more concerned about your health when deciding which type of meat to use for your meal.

The post The Difference Between White and Dark Chicken Meat appeared first on The Food Untold.