If you examine closely a whole chicken meat, the different parts can be distinguished by their color; there is white and dark meat. White chicken meat includes the wings, back, and breast, whereas the dark chicken meat includes the thigh and drumstick. But what are the differences between them? In this post, we’ll discuss the differences between white and dark chicken meat in terms of composition (color), taste, and nutrition.

DARK CHICKEN MEAT CONTAINS MYOGLOBIN

The levels of myoglobin dictates the color of meat. The levels vary depending on how often the muscle was used during activity when the animal was still alive. This also applies to other meats such as beef, pork, and lamb.

Myoglobin is a red-colored protein that binds or supplies oxygen in animal muscles. Oxygen is necessary for muscle contraction. The more worked the muscle, the more myoglobin and oxygen is supplied. This is the reason why the leg (drumstick) and thigh part in chicken meat become darker in color. Imagine all the power walking and running when the chicken was alive.

The wings and breast of chicken, on the other hand, are white meat because they are less worked. Chickens are birds that only fly short distances, and hence the wings are not worked as much. And the breast muscle only needs short burst of energy to assist in flapping the wings, and thus only need less oxygen and myoglobin.

In general, chicken meat is classified as white meat, which also includes turkey. Chicken meat typically contains only 0.05% of myoglobin, which makes it pinkish-white.

For more details about myoglobin, I have an article for it. Check it out here.

TASTE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHITE AND DARK CHICKEN MEAT

Here is one of the most asked questions regarding white and dark chicken meat. Which one is better, in terms of taste, white or dark chicken meat? Well, neither because it depends on one’s preference. As we have earlier learned, dark chicken meat contains more proteins in the form of myoglobin. In addition to that, dark meat contains more fat because of the multiple muscles present. Furthermore, many flavor compounds found in dark meat are fat-soluble. This makes the leg and thigh part tender, juicy, and flavorful when cooked. If you are someone who prefer stronger chicken flavor, then dark meat suits you better.

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Breast and wing part are known to have a milder taste. Nonetheless, white chicken meat is no pushover though. The best thing about white meat though is that they are very versatile during cooking. Because of their mild taste, they can be added in a wide variety of cuisines and produce different flavors. If you prefer chicken with a subtle taste, or wish to pair it with another ingredient, then you should go for white chicken meat.

In the United States and Europe, white chicken meat, particularly the breast part, is more preferred over dark meat. In fact, the bulk of dark chicken meat in the US is exported to other countries for the same reason. The wing (buffalo wing) and breast part are often prepared fried in these regions.

NUTRITIONAL PROFILE DIFFERENCE

Like the taste and color, there are also several differences between the two in terms of nutrition. But again, it boils down to one’s preference and need.

For most nutritionist and dieticians, white chicken meat is better because it contains less fat and calories. According to My Fitness Pal, a 3 ounce of white meat contains 147 calories and 4 grams of fat, whereas dark meat of the same amount contains 174 calories and 8 grams of fat. And when it comes protein, the difference is not that significant. The same serving of white meat contains 26 grams, while dark meat contains 23 grams. So if you are someone who wants to cut down on calorie and fat intake, then white chicken is a better option.

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Dark meat, on the hand, is better for individuals who are looking for essential vitamins and minerals. The leg and thigh part, as I mentioned earlier, require more myoglobin for physical activity. But myoglobin is more than just color. This protein also carries nutrients, particularly iron, a mineral that our body needs to produce hemoglobin. Dark meat contains 7.0 ppm of iron. This is twice as many as that in white meat, which contains 3.0 ppm of iron. Aside from iron, dark meat is also a good source of heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids, since it contains more fat than white meat. It also contains more zinc, riboflavin (vitamin B2), thiamine (vitamin B1), and selenium.

Keep your dietary requirements in mind if you are more concerned about your health when deciding which type of meat to use for your meal.

The post The Difference Between White and Dark Chicken Meat appeared first on The Food Untold.

Sodium erythorbate is the sodium salt of erythorbic acid, an antioxidant chemically related to vitamin C. It is produced from sugars of various sources, such as corn, beets, and sugar cane. It is a common food additive in processed meat products, sodas, and sometimes in salads and baked products. Its E number (codes for food additives used within the European Union) is E316. Sodium erythorbate other names include Sodium isoascorbate and Sodium D-isoascorbic acid.

Sodium erythorbate is odorless, and appears as a white crystalline powder or granule. Its pH (acidity) is between 5.0 and 6.0. A 10% solution of commercial grade sodium erythorbate may have a pH 7.2 to 7.9. It is freely soluble at 16 g/100 ml of water. Sodium erythorbate is non-reactive in dry state. But it is an effective antioxidant when mixed with water as it reacts readily with oxygen and other oxidizing agents.

Sodium erythorbate is heat stable as it decomposes only at temperatures between 327.2°F (164°C) and 341.6°F (172°C).

In the food industry, it works as an antioxidant, preservative, and curing agent (color retention and reducing compound).

Let’s discuss further the food applications, production method, and safety of sodium erythorbate.

PRODUCTION METHOD

No! Sodium erythorbate is not made from earthworms. It is definitely just a myth. Sodium erythorbate is produced from fermentation of sugars. The microbes involved in the process is Pseudomonas fluorescens or Arthrobacter globiformis. The fermentation is performed at 86°F (30°C) to 95°F (35°C) for 30 hours. Sulfate and activated carbon are added to the fermentation broth as supplements for acidification and decolorization, and then the filtrate is pressed to achieve the clean liquid.

This broth is concentrated by compression. Sulfuric acid and methanol are added to the broth and then esterified for 5 hours. Freezing and centrifuged filtering obtains a yield of around 82% methyl ester, which is transformed using basic methanol solution. This is frozen and crystallized to produce the crude product of D-isoascorbic acid.

APPLICATIONS IN FOOD

Keeping fruits and vegetables fresh

Like vitamin C, sodium erythorbate has antioxidant properties. This means it can keep foods, fruits and vegetables, in particular, fresh for longer by inhibiting oxidation or enzymatic browning. Enzymatic browning is generally undesirable in foods. One good example of this is browning of a cut apple due to exposure to oxygen. The browning is caused by the interaction between the enzyme in the fruit called polyphenol oxidase (PPO), polyphenols or phenolic compounds, oxygen. This reaction forms quinones, the pre-cursors to brown pigments. Although it is safe to eat, it does not look appetizing, right?

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By spraying or dipping the fruit in aqueous solution of sodium erythorbate, the fruit stays fresh and browning is prevented. Sodium erythorbate does this by gathering oxygen and reducing the quinones back to polyphenol compounds, before they can undergo reactions that leads to browning.

Sodium erythorbate can also be used as an antioxidant in picking brine up to 7.5 ounces per 100 gallons.

Accelerating the process of curing

The process of curing meat and poultry involves the use of salt alone, or in combination of other curing ingredients like sodium nitrite, sugar, and spices. Sodium nitrate and nitrite contribute to the development of the distinct color and flavor of cured meats such as ham, bacon, and frankfurters. The interaction of the myoglobin heme with nitric oxide to generate the nitrosylmyoglobin pigment gives cooked, cured meats their distinctive pinkish red hue. Nitrite also prevents the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microbes, including Clostridium botulinum.

One known disadvantage of curing is that it requires time. By using sodium erythorbate, the curing time is shortened by increasing the rate of reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide.

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Nitric oxide is derived from nitrite in the presence of reducing compounds such as sodium erythorbate (erythorbic acid). Nitrite dissolved in water can form nitrous acid. In a reducing environment, nitric acid decomposes to nitric oxide. When this binds to the heme iron, the electron distribution in the heme structure changes, producing a pinkish color.

Reducing compounds, mainly sodium ascorbate and sodium erythorbate, are added in meat curing mixtures to reduce the time it takes to convert nitrite to nitric oxide and ferric ion of the heme to ferrous ion.

Since sodium erythorbate is also an antioxidant, it delays the onset of oxidative rancidity.

Preventing carcinogenic compounds in meat

The biggest concern in processed meat products is the presence of potential carcinogens. Processed meats contain nitrite to prevent the development of botulinum toxin, which causes botulism, a potentially fatal disease. Nitrite also helps develops the distinct pink color and flavor of cured meat, and prevents off-odor and off-flavor during storage.

However, nitrites could combine with amines. Amines develop as a result of protein breakdown in the stomach. This forms nitrosamines, one of the most carcinogenic compounds found in foods. In fact, it has been a great concern that multiple regulatory changes have been imposed to control the use of nitrite in meat products.

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One way to prevent nitrosamine formation is by using antioxidants such as erythorbic acid and its salt sodium erythorbate or ascorbic acid (vitamin C). These additives are effective in curtailing this undesirable reaction. Sodium erythorbate does this by interacting with nitrous acid, converting nitrite to nitric oxide. And since it raises the concentration of nitric oxide during curing, the formation of the curing pigment is much faster. It also maintains the bright pink color in processed meats. This is why many processors use sodium erythorbate in their products.

HEALTH CONCERNS

Sodium erythorbate is generally a safe ingredient in food. The governing agencies that have approved the use of sodium erythorbate in food include:

• U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
• European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)

The acceptable daily intake (ADI) of sodium erythorbate is at 6 mg/kg bw/day. The EFSA re-evaluated this in 2016. Based on studies that included its genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, the panel found no reason to revise the current ADI and that its permitted or reported use and use levels would not be of concern.

Although there have been some reports of people sensitive to the food additive. Side effects that may be experienced include dizziness, fatigue, and headache. Excessive consumption of sodium erythorbate may also contribute to the risk of kidney stones.

To prevent excessive amounts of sodium erythorbate in food, maximum permitted levels is in place. The below table shows the approved maximum limits of sodium erythorbate (also applies to erythorbic acid). (For other additives, you may refer here).

In the United States, the FDA now requires 550 ppm of sodium erythorbate in bacon production to increase the rate of nitric oxide formation and greatly minimize nitrosamine formation.

References:

S. Damodaran, K. Parkin (2017). Fennema’s Food Chemistry (5th edition). CRC Press.

R. Winters (2009). A Consumer’s Dictionary of Food Additives, 7th Edition. Crown.

V. Vaclavik, E. Christian (2014) Essentials of Food Science (4th edition). Springer.

J. DeMan, J. Finley, W. Jeffrey Hurst, C. Y. Lee (2018). Principles of Food Chemistry (4th edition). Springer.

The post What Is Sodium Erythorbate (E316) In Food? appeared first on The Food Untold.

One of the oldest misconceptions in cooking is that searing a steak creates a juicier product because it helps seal in the flavor. It is far from the truth. But searing is definitely an essential step in braising,  sautéing, roasting, grilling, and baking for a number of reasons.

“Sear the meat to seal in the juices.”

German chemist Justus von Liebig made up this popular phrase around 1850. Although disproved numerous times decades later, believe it or not, this myth lives on.

Searing involves cooking meat on a hot skillet at a temperature of 284ºF (140ºC) or higher. The high temperature involved encourages the amino acids in protein and sugars to react together in a process called Maillard reaction. The products of this reaction include flavor compounds and melanoidins, the pigments responsible for the brown crust of a steak, the color of roasted coffee beans, and toasted nuts.

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But the appealing brown crust and flavor molecules are all it. Searing does not produce an impermeable crust that prevents the juice or flavor from escaping. Although the Maillard reaction produces flavor and browning, the heat also damages the tissue of the meat. The heat involved makes the collagen to shrink and disrupt the integrity of the muscle fiber. The result is a seared steak that dries faster than an unseared one. What exactly happens here is that the high heat required to brown the outer layer dries out the inside of the steak much quicker. The searing temperature should not exceed 500°F (260°C), as the rate of drying out of the inside is excessive.

DISPROVING LIEBIG’S IDEA

Liebig believed that the water-soluble components in the meat were nutritionally important. So he thought of an idea how to minimize their loss. In his book Researches on the Chemistry of Food, he wrote that this could be achieved by cooking the meat rapidly that the meat juices are quickly sealed inside. He also explained what happens when a piece of meat is submerged in boiling water, and then reduced to a simmer.

With the meat plunged in the boiling water, the albumin coagulates from the surface to the interior. The movement produces a shell or crust that prohibits the water from the outside to penetrate into the meat. Liebig believed that if the crust can keep water out of the meat during boiling, it can keep the juices in when roasted.

Further read: Science Says Never Have Your Steak Well Done

Liebig’s idea immediately made the rounds, especially among cooks and cookbook writers. However, simple experiments during the 1930s proved this to be incorrect.

The crust that forms around the surface is neither impermeable nor waterproof. The loss of moisture in the meat is evident by the sound of sizzling during browning, water boiling, and the leaking of water after browning. Since water continuously escapes and vaporizes, sometimes searing is done near the end of cooking to retain as much juiciness as possible.

The rate of moisture loss is proportional to the temperature of the meat. In short, high heat during searing dries out the meat surface more than moderate heat does.

So, yeah. Unfortunately, searing steak does not seal in the flavor. But the sure thing though is it produces flavor and a brown crust.

References:

H. McGee (1990). The Curious Cook: More Kitchen Science and Lore. North Point Press.

 M. Wallert, K. Colabroy, B. Kelly, J. Provost (2016). The Science Of Cooking : Understanding The Biology and Chemistry Behind Food and Cooking. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The post Does Searing A Steak Really Seal In The Flavor? appeared first on The Food Untold.

Have you ever wondered why chicken meat is pinkish-white, while beef is cherry red? The predominant pigment and its concentration contained in the meat determines the meat color. There are actually two major pigments responsible for this: myoglobin and hemoglobin.

Although myoglobin composes 80 to 90% of the total meat pigment. Myoglobin is a red-colored, oxygen-binding protein in the animal muscle, whereas hemoglobin carries oxygen to the bloodstream. Hemoglobin is present at 10 to 20% in well-bled meat.

During cooking, myoglobin may be used as an indication of doneness of meat. Exposure to heat denatures the myoglobin protein, changing the color of the meat from purple or red to pale gray-brown.

Myoglobin also takes part in the formation of the appealing color of cured meat. Sodium nitrite is a common curing agent in meat products such as ham. What happens here is that the nitrite is converted to nitric oxide. Then, the nitric oxide reacts with myoglobin to form nitric oxide myoglobin, which is responsible for the red color of uncured meat. The curing process changes the color of the meat to the characteristic bright pink color.

Meats have different colors because of the varying levels of myoglobin they contain. Of course, the higher the levels of myoglobin, the redder or darker the meat. There are several factors that determine the concentration of myoglobin in meat.

FREQUENTLY EXERCISED MEAT PORTION IS DARKER

One factor is how often the muscle is used when the animal was alive. Generally, myoglobin is in higher levels in parts of the meat that expends more oxygen during movement.

If you observe a raw chicken meat, the breast meat is white. Breast muscle aids in flapping wings, so it only requires short bursts of energy and less oxygen. Raw chicken meat contains 0.05% myoglobin and is pinkish-white. But the same thing cannot be said to the leg part. The power daily walking of chicken makes the leg darker. For more detail on the differences between white and dark chicken meat, check out this article.

The leg muscle is darker also in pork meat. Pork has an average myoglobin content of 0.2% and is reddish-pink. The loin meat on the back is both light and dark, so it requires some flavoring when cooked.

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Duck meat contains more myoglobin than both pork and chicken meat. Duck meat contains an average myoglobin content of 0.3%. Always moving around, ducks require darker, fatty muscle for stamina. The good thing is that the fat intensifies the flavor, so little flavoring is needed during cooking.

Lamb meat is reddish-pink, and contains an average myoglobin content of 0.6%. Cuts at the top of the leg is darker. The high levels of myoglobin and fat provide juiciness and flavor.

Beef is cherry red because it contains more myoglobin than most meats. On average, its myoglobin content is 0.8%. Cows use their slow-twitch muscle to roam around. Myoglobin and fat give beef its juiciness and flavor, so less flavoring is necessary when cooking. Dark meat contains more myoglobin, fat, iron, and zinc than white meat.

AS THE ANIMAL GROWS OLDER, THE MYOGLOBIN LEVELS INCREASE

Meats of older animals contain higher levels of myoglobin. The reason for this is that their muscles have been worked more. They have denser meat and stronger connective tissue.

Lamb is meat from sheep not older than 1 year, and is preferred by many in the United States. Its color is reddish pink because its myoglobin content is 0.6%. Mutton is meat from sheep older than 1 year, and is enjoyed more in Europe and in the middle East. Its color is intense red. Its myoglobin content is 1.4%, more than twice as much as that in lamb. The combination of fat and myoglobin give mutton a stronger flavor than lamb.

BLOOD OR MYOGLOBIN?

This is one of the most talked about on the internet. Is that blood on your steak? Or myoglobin? Often times, you’ll find a red liquid in the bottom of the packaging. Most people would say it is blood. Another similar case is a plate of “bloody” steak at a restaurant. The truth is that red liquid is not blood. But myoglobin and water, or myowater. Before the meat reaches the market, the slaughtering process ensures that blood have been removed. If that red liquid were blood, it would be dark, like almost black, and it would coagulate on your plate of steak.

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A “bloody” steak usually happens when cooked rare. Well, even meat that is intense red is bloodless. A steak well done has been cooked thoroughly and is grayish brown only because myoglobin has been denatured.

The post Myoglobin: The Protein That Dictates Meat Color appeared first on The Food Untold.

Water makes up the largest amount of muscle weight, which is about 70% to 80% moisture. It is located between the thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments of the myofibrils. Each type of muscle tissue contains the proteins myosin and actin. Muscle contractions and movement are caused by the interaction of myosin filaments and actin filaments. The molecular motor myosin transforms the chemical energy supplied by ATP into mechanical energy.

The actin filaments are subsequently pulled along by this mechanical energy, contracting the muscle fibers and resulting in movement. The water between the myosin and actin filaments can be lost, however, 55% of the muscle weight is retained by the myofibrillar proteins. The so-called “water-holding capacity,” (WHC) refers to this moisture retention. To put it simply, it is fresh meat’s ability to retain its own water.

Water can be categorized as “bound,” “free,” or “immobilized”. As the name implies, bound water is a type of water molecule that is chemically linked to the proteins in meat. Between 4% and 5% of the total moisture content of wet meat is represented by this. Free water, on the other hand, is kept in cellular membranes through capillary action. The loss of membranous water is caused by the breakdown of proteins at the cellular level, i.e., through chopping or grinding.

Immobilized water is indirectly retained by the electric charges of reactive proteins in meats. This can range from 35% to 75%. Both meat processors and chefs alike want to retain moisture in the meat.

Here is why.

WHY WATER HOLDING CAPACITY IS IMPORTANT

WHC is crucial for yields, texture, and flavor. In fact, an increase in water holding capacity is associated with juiciness and tenderness of cooked meat. Further, High WHC in fresh meat indicates good firmness and tight structure. By using a penetrometer or a shear force equipment, it can be quantified objectively. Processed beef products with a good level of firmness are generally of higher grade. For this reason, water holding capacity preservation is a top priority for both the commercial sector—which sells meat by the weight—and households, where cooked items can all too readily retain or lose moisture.

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Slicing meat can result in purge or drip loss which can range between 2% to 10%. This results in economic losses to retailers and meat processors. Additionally, drip loss is a crucial visual indication for determining the quality of the meat. Meat with good WHC makes it less likely to shrink while being stored. In processing, WHC is crucial where meat is subjected to physical forces such cutting, grinding, filling, pressing, heating, etc. According to certain studies, meat with drip loss is disliked by consumers worldwide.

WHC AND pH

To achieve better water retention in meat, several factors come into play. pH particularly plays an important role. The rate at which the pH changes after slaughter also have a big impact on the meat’s quality. While the temperature is still high, a sudden pH change results in significant denaturation of contractile and/or sarcoplasmic proteins, rendering the proteins to hold less water.

High temperatures can also result in the production of lysozomal enzymes, which hydrolyze proteins. Such unfavorable changes may occur if the carcass is not immediately cooled after slaughter, for instance, if the pH falls to 6.0 before the temperature drops to 95°F (35°C).

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Because many of the proteins are not as close to their isoelectric point band and can bind more water, meat with a high ultimate pH has great water-holding capacity. The ultimate pH is the pH at which glycolysis stop, which is usually at 5.5. However, because it prevents microbial growth, a low final pH is preferable from a microbiological perspective. A high final pH leads to poor microbial growth resistance.

OTHER FACTORS THAT AFFECT WHC OF MEAT

Aside from pH, other factors that affect water holding capacity include temperature during storage, freezing and thawing, time postmortem, and the cut and size of meat.

Temperature during storage, and freezing and thawing

The temperature of the carcass must be lowered as quickly as possible. However, to maintain fresh meat’s ability to hold water, it’s crucial to keep its temperature as low as possible (without letting it freeze). For instance, a considerable increase in drip loss might be experienced when the storage temperature is raised from 32°F (0°C) to 39.2°F (4°C).

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Fresh meat freezing and thawing can have a significant impact on how much moisture is lost as drip. In fact, In fact, according to some studies, drip loss in pork that has been frozen and thawed might virtually double compared to non-frozen pork. This is partly because the meat’s ice crystals creates physical disruption. When meat reaches a temperature of roughly 30.2°F (-1°C), ice starts to form. At a temperature of 23°F (-5°C), almost 75% of the water in meat is ice. At -4°F (-20°C), where maximum ice formation takes place, 92% of the water is frozen. Even at -35°C, the remaining 8% is only moderately resistant to freezing.T

The amount of drip lost during thawing can be significantly influenced by the rate at which the product is frozen. The quality of the ensuing thawed food may be better and drip loss may be reduced compared to a product that is frozen very slowly if the meat is frozen very quickly. This is due to the fact that delayed freezing encourages the growth of larger ice crystals, whereas very quick freezing favors the formation of smaller ice crystals. The cell membrane may potentially expand or even break as a result of these bigger ice crystals.

Time postmortem and the cut and size of meat

Pre-rigor meat generally has a relatively low drip loss. However, the drip losses tend to increase later, after slaughter, when the muscle has gone into rigor. One explanation for this is that as muscle enters rigor, the space available for water to reside in the myofibril is reduced by the development of rigor bonds. Additionally, as the muscle reaches rigor, the pH of the tissue nears many important proteins’ isoelectric points, particularly myosin. This has an impact on how much water is drawn to protein structures in the myofibril. These two elements may significantly increase drip loss.

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Very little drip happens in an intact muscle. As a result, although evaporative losses from the carcass’ surface may happen, real drip losses are rather little. Once the muscles are sliced or cut, however, there is more chance for drip to escape. The proportion of the product lost as drip can also be influenced by the size of the meat.

Comparatively more drip is lost from smaller chunks of meat than from larger ones. In summary, even if the total amount of drip lost may be negligible in comparison to a larger cut of meat, it is believed that the closer a piece of meat is to its surface, the greater the percentage of drip lost. Since drip usually flows along the length of the fibers, this is particularly true when the longest cut occurs across the muscle cells rather than along them.

References

V. Vaclavik, E. Christian (2014). Essentials of Food Science (4th edition). Springer.

BO Sharma (1999). Meat and Meat Products Technology (Including Poultry Products Technology). Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

M. Gibson (2018). Food Science and the Culinary Arts. Academic Press.

The post What Is Water Holding Capacity of Meat? appeared first on The Food Untold.

What if science advices you to never have steak well done? How do you like your steak, anyway? Well done? Medium rare? Or Rare? First of all, steak doneness refers to the internal temperature the steak reaches during cooking. Basically, there are 5 of them—  rare, medium rare, medium, medium well, and well done. In the US, there is blue rare, making it six doneness levels. But what do most people prefer? Since Americans love their steak a lot, let’s see what they like.

According to Fox News, most Americans prefer their steak well done or medium well. Politics aside, a survey of over 1,200 Americans by YouGov showed the same thing. Nearly one-fourth of Americans (24%) like their steak well done, medium rare comes a close second (23%), next is medium well-done (16%), then medium (14%), and rare (11%). On the further side is blue rare and burnt with 2% each.

Well. It is definitely true that when it comes to steak doneness, it is matter a preference and taste. But why the love for well done steak? Some people say it tastes better and looks way more appetizing. And another thing is that a well done steak is a guarantee that the steak has been cooked thoroughly, and that they will not fall sick from food poisoning.

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You cannot blame them actually. Nobody wants a bloody raw steak for dinner. It is better safe than sorry. But what is the truth? If we are going to involve science here, you would realize that you should not have your steak cooked well done. Here is why.

Quality-wise, well done steak does not make sense

One of the key factors for a flavorful plate of steak is a thick cut with good marbling. In fact, in is one of the main things to look for when picking a good cut of meat. This is why certain meats like Wagyu beef are so sought after even with their crazy price tags. Anyway, what does marbling have to do with steak?

Generally, the more marbling (fat), the better. Also known as intramuscular fat, marbling in meat elevates the quality of the steak. Specifically, it adds flavor, and improves the tenderness and juiciness—just what steak should be. But these things will only be achieved if the steak is cooked properly. Some people may disagree, but cooking steak well done is just not that (according to science, at least.)

Why?

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A well done steak is achieved at a cooking temperature between 155° F (68.3° C) to 165° F (73.8° C). Each side of the steak should be done for about 6 minutes. At this level, proteins have already coagulated. There is excessive moisture loss at around 20% to 40% of the uncooked weight. And the fat has rendered out. As a result, the meat is tougher, drier, the surface is darker while the center is mostly brown. The feel of a well done steak is like the base of your thumb when the thumb touches the little finger. And more importantly, the steak has little to no flavor due to the long cooking time.

Having said all these, what is the best steak doneness level then?

Go for medium rare, like most chefs do (even USDA says so)

Okay. To make things straight, it is not about health. If you have not heard the rumor yet, people say medium steak is healthier. No, it is definitely not true. When talking about steak doneness, we talk about quality.

Now back to it.

When the steak is cooked medium rare, you are getting excellent quality steak. Medium rare is achieved at an internal cooking temperature of around 145° F (62.7° C). Each side of the steak should be done for about 3 and a half minutes. When properly cooked, a medium rare steak is pink in the center. The outside is firm, while juicy and tender on the inside. The feel of a medium rare steak is like the base of your thumb, when the thumb touches the middle finger. When it comes to flavor and tenderness, nothing beats medium rare. This is because the temperature is just perfect to allow the marbling or fat to dissolve within the steak, releasing the pleasing aroma and flavor.

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If you are the one doing all the cooking, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) suggests to go for beef cuts with better marbling. Cuts such as the USDA Prime beef may be may be grilled with high heat to medium rare for excellent results in flavor and tenderness. The same can also be said for medium steak.

For beef cuts with less marbling, on the other hand, may be cooked on the grill as well. But you may need to be extra careful as you may have to cook it as little less to keep it as tender as possible.

Is medium rare safe?

This is probably the most asked question about steak doneness. The simple question to this is yes, medium rare is perfectly safe. According to Food and Drug Administration, beef, pork, veal and lamb (chops, roasts, and steaks) are safe for consumption as long as its internal temperature reaches at least 145º F (62.7° C). Cooking with a temperature this high will eliminate the harmful bacteria in the food. So whenever you cook steaks, use a food temperature to make sure you achieve this. Today, chefs use smart thermometer to make the task easier. Smart thermometers allow you to check the internal temperature of the steak on your smart phone.

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Do not worry about the pink center of the steak. It is not an indication that your steak is raw. Do not treat red meats like beef the same way as white meats such as poultry. It is true that raw meats naturally have harmful bacteria. However, some meats naturally contain fewer microorganisms like red meats. There are several factors to tell, really. Commonly, larger animals like cows are raised in a more hygienic environment, and cross-contamination is less likely to occur. This is why poultry, whatever the form (ground or whole), needs to be cooked at a higher temperature—at least 165 ºF (73.8 ºC) . The specie of the animal and source also come into play.

The post Science Says Never Have Your Steak Well Done appeared first on The Food Untold.

Wagyu beef from Japan is so expensive, yet one of the most sought after in the world. Its high-marbling (intramuscular fat) is highly prized and is one key factor that defines its quality.

Originally, Wagyu (means Japanese cow) refers to the 4 breeds of Japanese cattle: the Black, Brown, Short Horn, and Polled. Among these four, Black is more common. Today, Wagyu cattle are no longer exclusively raised in Japan; Wagyu cattle raising regions outside Japan include the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and Canada. The Wagyu cattle breeds are descendants of original Japanese Wagyu cattle, with farmers relying mostly on crossbreed. Even so, Wagyu beef is still hard to find in these places.

On average, you can get yourself some Wagyu beef steak, which can cost up to $200. While the rarest to find A5 Olive Wagyu steak can cost you somewhere between $120 up to $3000. Why the crazy expensive prices, and what makes it so special? Here are the 3 reasons why Japanese Wagyu beef comes with the high price tag.

1. Wagyu cattle are fed with a special diet

According to the USDA, typical cattle eat silage, which is made in silos; fermented grasses, alfalfa, or corn; and hay of dried grass or alfalfa. While grass comprises the majority of pastured cattle.

The diet for Wagyu cattle is very different though. Yes, they also pasture on fresh grass and hay of dried grass. But they also feed on not-so-typical foods for pastured animals.

The rarest Wagyu beef, A5 Olive Wagyu is from cattle raised in Shodoshima in Seto Inland Sea in Japan. There, the cattle feed on rice straw, ryegrass, and pressed dried olive pulp mixed in the feed.

Why olives? First, the area is known for the olive oil industry. If olives are plentiful in the area, why not feed them to the cattle, right? Second, the health benefits. When olives are added to the cattle’s diet, it makes its meat very rich in oleic acid, a healthy fat. In fact, CNCB reported that Olive Wagyu contains 62% oleic acid. And lastly, the fat makes the beef tastier and remarkably tender, as if the meat just melts and disintegrates in your mouth.

The famous Kobe Wagyu beef from Hyōgo Prefecture is made from Japanese Black cattle. This breed drinks a bottle or two of beer per day, especially during summer days. During such time, the temperature and humidity may affect the appetite of the cattle. And unusual eating pattern may affect the quality of the meat. Feeding the cattle with beer helps in stimulating their appetite. And as a bonus, a diet that includes beer seems to affect the quality of the meat positively.

In Australia, Wagyu cattle consume Cadbury’s chocolate. Yes, chocolate. In the last two months of their lives, the cattle are fed with expired Cadbury’s chocolate, mixed with cookies and candies.

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2. Wagyu is considerably healthier than regular beef

For health-conscious individuals who love beef, they will not go wrong with Wagyu beef. In fact, Wagyu beef has always been compared with healthy food items such as olives and salmon.

Generally, red meats like beef and pork contain more saturated fat than white meat like chicken and fish. But it is not the case for Wagyu beef. That appealing marbling fat in Wagyu is composed primarily of monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA). And against regular beef, Wagyu beef can have 300% more times the amount of MUFA. As you may already know, MUFA is so-called the “good fat” because it lowers the cholesterol levels, cuts the risks of developing heart disease, and improves the overall health.

Among MUFA, oleic acid is the most dominant in Wagyu beef. A 2006 study involved determination of oleic acid concentrations in the subcutaneous adipose tissues of the types of beef, which includes Wagyu, Hanwoo, Australian crossbred, corn-fed Angus, hay-fed Angus, and weaned Angus. The investigation revealed that oleic acid was more concentrated in Wagyu beef at 52.9% (the rare Olive Wagyu contains 62% oleic acid). The Korean Hanwoo beef came in second at 47.3%. Weaned Angus beef contained the least amount at 32.9%.

Because of the high percentage of MUFA in Wagyu beef, its cholesterol level is the lowest among meats; beats even the likes of chicken and fish meat. Furthermore, research shows that instead of raising the LDL (bad) cholesterol level, consuming Wagyu beef actually lowers it while increasing the HDL (good) cholesterol.

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3. Wagyu beef tastes better than regular beef

When it comes sensory characteristics, things are more subjective—depends on the individual’s preference. One good example of this is the doneness of steak. Some like a well done steak, while some like it medium rare.

However, there is no denying the superiority of Wagyu beef against regular beef. Many people who have experienced this luxury meat associate it with “buttery”, fattiness”, “hint of umami”, and “melt-in-your-mouth” experience. All of these are perceived desirable, and due in large part to the high concentration of fat or marbling.

In fact, the Wagyu Grading system grades Wagyu beef by its marbling, color, as well as texture. The A-grade Wagyu is the highest quality beef, and is graded on a scale of 1 to 5. The A5 Wagyu is the finest.

According to a research published by the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 17 odor compounds are responsible for the sweet aroma of Wagyu beef (black cattle). The strongest of these compounds was trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal, a product derived from fatty acids. Well, the obvious reason for this is the dominating intramuscular fat, which plays an important role in the development of the characteristic aroma and flavor in Wagyu beef.

As for the juiciness and tenderness, MUFAs, too, are mainly responsible for this. They have a lower melting point (around 20℃) than saturated fats. Oleic acid, particularly, has a melting point 13.4°C, just below human body temperature. This is why Wagyu beef gives that melt-in-your-mouth sensation when eaten. Plus, oleic acid tends to lower the melting point of lipids in the beef, increasing the perception of juiciness.

The post 3 Reasons Why Wagyu Beef Is So Special (And Expensive) appeared first on The Food Untold.

When we see food that doesn’t look good, we wonder, has it gone bad? Has it spoiled already? Take meat as one example. We make sure that the beef is bright red, chicken is light pink, and pork is reddish-pink. But what if the meat has already turned brown? Is brown meat bad, like most people believe in?

Sure, color is a huge factor that affects buyers’ behavior. It is one of the first deciding factor that help us. Is this brown meat worth the purchase? Most consumers would definitely choose that bright red meat. But the truth is that meat that has turned brown does not automatically mean it has gone bad. And perhaps, opting for such meat is maybe an even better idea.

Here’s why.

Myoglobin is responsible for the color of meat

Meat is basically just muscle tissue composed of around 70-75% water, 10-20% proteins, and around 5% fat, depending on the animal. The types of meat are generally categorized into two: white meat and red meat.

White meat includes chicken and turkey, while lamb, beef, and pork are red meat. Apparently, they are distinguished by the color of the meat. Red meat is so called because they contain more myoglobin than white meat.

Now what exactly is myoglobin?

Myoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the muscle of the animal. This oxygen is required, particularly in the working muscles, in order for the animal to move around or exercise. As you may guess, there is more myoglobin content in certain cuts. In chicken, for example, the legs are the most worked and therefore are usually darker. This is why legs have more iron and zinc than breast meat.

Another factor that affects the amount of myoglobin in the meat is age. The older the animal, the higher the amount of myoglobin in the meat. Take beef as an example, a young beef contains 8 mg/g of myoglobin, while an old beef contains 18 mg/g of myoglobin.

There is this misconception about blood in the meat. Actually, blood is removed during slaughtering of the animal. So that liquid that you see that leaks out of the meat package you bought from the meat market is myoglobin (and water).

Now let’s go back. The bright red meat in the retail display. How does it keep that same appealing color?

Because meat is exposed to a controlled oxygen environment

It is kind of like enzymatic browning in fruits and vegetables. When you visit a slaughterhouse, try to observe the meat just butchered and vacuum-packed. You will see that such meat can be purple or purplish red. This happens because the meat is not exposed to oxygen.

When the meat is sent to retail stores, it is placed in a retail display ideal to maintain the quality of the meat—particularly the color. These retail displays can provide oxygen that reacts with myoglobin to produce oxymyoglobin. This oxymyoglobin is a pigment that turns the meat bright red, the color that suggests fresh meat, right?

To achieve and maintain this color, oxygen level must be well-maintained at around 70% to 80%.

However, there are instances that meat remains purple or purplish red. One common reason is that the animal may have been stressed before or during slaughter. Another adverse effect of this is the meat could be firm and dry.

Over time, as the meat is continuously exposed to oxygen, myoglobin turns red to brown or brownish-red. This happens a week later as the iron in the myoglobin is oxidized (metmyoglobin).

Further read: Meat Science: Does Marinating For Flavor Really Work?

But brown meat does not automatically mean spoiled

There are some instances that meat stores sell discolored meat at a lower price. Well, you go ahead and buy some because brown meat is still safe for consumption, provided that the meat is properly stored before handling it to you.

If you still have doubts, check the meat with your senses. Typical signs of spoilage include:

• Slimy
• Sticky
• Pungent smell
• Sour smell

Dry-aging meat turn meat brown

There are butchers who employ dry-aging to improve the quality of the meat. The process is simple. The meat is dry-aged in an air-controlled environment. But the thing is the meat is hanged, exposing all sides of it to air, or in racks. What happens here is that over time, the moisture is removed, the meat darkens, becomes tender, and the flavor intensifies.

The enhanced quality developed by aging makes dry-aged meats to cost more than their fresh counterparts.

Further read: Why You Should Not Freeze Meat At Home

Carbon monoxide (low oxygen packaging) as color enhancer

Carbon monoxide (CO) in low concentrations (4% or lower) can be added to vacuum-packed meat. CO works by reacting with myoglobin to create the bright red pigment, carboxymyoglobin.

Although most retail displays offer a high oxygen environment, studies have proven that CO can prolong the bright red color in meat, which definitely appeals to consumers. In fact, this study revealed that meat vacuum-packed with a low concentration of CO is better received by consumers. Aside from color stability for up to 20 days or more, CO also improves meat tenderness, prevent flavor oxidation, bone darkening, and prevent bacteria growth.

The use of CO in fresh meat packaging has been allowed since 2002. However, the use of CO has been met with controversies since its acceptance as a meat color enhancer. In fact, even FDA, once asked to prohibit the use of CO because it hides spoilage (consumer deception) and aging. Furthermore, due to its known potential side effects (environmental hazards), many countries ban the use of CO, not only for meat, but for seafood as well.

Key takeaways

• Myoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the muscle of the animal
• The more myoglobin that there is, the darker or redder the meat
• The older the animal, the higher the amount of myoglobin in the meat
• Myoglobin produces oxymyoglobin, a bright red pigment, when it comes into contact with oxygen
• Prolonged exposure of myoglobin to oxygen produces the brown pigment, metmyoglobin
• Brown meat does not always mean spoiled.
• Carbon monoxide is used for better color stability in meat

Found something we missed? Want to add something? Comment below.

The post Meat Science: Is Brown Meat Bad? appeared first on The Food Untold.

We freeze meat to preserve them for longer. The mechanism is very simple. The residual moisture, which bacteria need to grow, turns into ice. This effectively inhibits the growth of bacteria, and prevents foodborne illness. But how about the quality of the meat when you prepare it? Is is good? How is the taste? The texture?

If you are used to “flash freezing” meat at home, you better think it over. Industrial freezing is not the same as just chopping meat into smaller pieces, and then freezing them in your home freezer.

Here is why.

Industrial freezers can flash freeze meat efficiently

Like the name suggests, flash freezing (or blast freezing) is subjecting meat to an extremely low temperature quickly. The temperature is far below the freezing point of water at 32 °F (0 °C). A flash freezer (like the one above) must be able to maintain a temperature of meat at least -0.4 °F (-18°C) or lower. And an increase in temperature is only tolerable in short periods. You may want to read more on this with this document provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Unlike home freezers, industrial ones use more power to make the temperature of food from around 158 °F (70 °C) down to 0.4 °F (-18°C) in just 240 minutes! This is possible by using powerful blower fans, which navigate cold air across the inside of the freezer.

Depending on the design, other freezers can quick-freeze foods in other ways.

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Why the rush though?

It is simple—we do not want large ice crystals.

When we freeze meat, the water inside crystallizes, like I mentioned. The thing is that freezing produces ice crystals, which is normal. But the longer the freezing takes, these sharp crystals become bigger. And that is not desirable.

What is wrong with large ice crystals?

Freezing naturally involves the formation of ice crystals. A longer freezing time makes the ice crystals larger. These are sharp enough to pierce and damaged the meat’s structure. And the meat loses water once the meat thawed. Obviously, this is not a good thing as the meat becomes less tender and juicy.

This is why home freezing of meat is not recommended. Unlike the ones used in commercial kitchens and cold storages, home freezers do not have the capability to produce enough power to quick-freeze meat efficiently.

Freezer burned meat

A phenomenon referred to as freezer burn, this occurs when the water froze, and migrated out of the meat to find itself in the coldest part of the freezer. It is apparent when the meat looks discolored, tough, and shriveled. Furthermore, the fats in the meat gradually oxidize, degrade and turn rancid. Freezer burned meat is totally safe to cook and eat. But it is not appetizing to consume anymore.

One way to combat this is by placing the meat in an airtight wrapper before freezing it. It helps by trapping the water molecules. Remember though that the water will eventually escape. So do not freeze meat for too long.

How long can you freeze meat?

Frozen meat is safe indefinitely. But longer freezing time may result in loss of quality. Particularly, it affects the taste and texture. The below table are the guidelines for freezer storage of meats, as provided by Foodsafety.gov. You may want to check out the whole list on their page.

The post Why You Should Not Freeze Meat At Home appeared first on The Food Untold.

We have been marinating meats for a hundred years already. In history, the process of marinating is believed to have originated in various locations. Soy sauce-based marinades have been long used in Asia. In Latin America, before the start of the expeditions of the Europeans, papaya was first used to tenderize cuts of meat. Various accounts of use marinates in other parts of the world have been document as well.

By the way, what were marinade originally used for?

A hundred years before the invention of the refrigerator, our ancestors used many ways to preserve food. In order to prolong the shelf life of the foods, they employed various preservation methods. They mostly used salting, smoking, drying, and even spicing.

And marinating actually falls under the salting method. Because back then, marinades were basically just salty soup used to preserve the meat. In fact, marinate literally means “pickle in sea salt brine”.

Today, we use marinades for two main reasons: to tenderize meat, and flavor our food (do actually they?)

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How Marinades Tenderize Meat

Meat of animals is composed of proteins in the muscle fibers. Meat proteins have three classifications: connective tissues (collagens), myofibrillar (made up of myosin and actin), and sarcoplasmic (enzymes and myoglobin). The connective tissues act to support the bones during movement. The myofibrillar proteins perform muscle movement while the sarcoplasmic proteins are mainly responsible for metabolism.

The movement of the animal makes its meat tougher and harder to chew. The use of acids (usually citrus, and vinegar) and fruit enzymes make the meat softer by breaking down these proteins. Yes, some fruits are natural meat tenderizers because they contain enzymes that break down meat proteins. Most marinade recipes call for pineapples (for bromelain enzyme) and papayas (papain enzyme). Figs, mango, pears are also popular choices.

Fun fact: Ever wondered why eating pineapples give us a burning sensation in the tongue? It is because the bromelain is trying to breakdown the protein in the tongue. Thankfully, our tongue can regenerate pretty quickly.

Most marinade recipes today may include fat, oil, seasonings for flavor, acid and fruit enzymes. Some recipes may call for herbs and spices.

Does Marinating For Flavor Really Work?

Yes, marinades do flavor the meat. But contrary to popular belief, they only do their wonders on the surface up to a few millimetres (4 mm max) into the meat. Why? Most animal meat contains approximately 75% water, 18% protein, 5% fat, 1% carbohydrates, and 1% minerals. And most flavor molecules from marinades are too large to get through the meat tissue cells and find their way deep into the meat.

But salt do penetrate because it reacts with the water in the meat by drawing it out. It denatures the proteins when it draws back the water in the meat.

Careful though because the existence of salt in marinades is also a reason why meat should not be marinated for 24 hours. Longer than that will only cure meat on the outside. This will result in the mushy outer layer when cooked (who would want that, anyway?)

Half an hour of marinating will already give the meat aroma, and flavor while tenderizing the meat at the same time. As a rule, marinate meat in 30 minutes up to 24 hours.  It is also a better idea to go for thinner cuts of meat. This also shortens the cooking time.

Key Takeaways

• Add acid or fruit enzymes to marinade to tenderize meat.
• Marinades only works mostly on the surface of the meat up to a few millimetres deep.
• Marinade meat for 30 minutes-24 hours.

The post Meat Science: Does Marinating For Flavor Really Work? appeared first on The Food Untold.